Chapter 5 Late Biblical Hebrew

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What is late Biblical Hebrew ? In general it is the post exilic style found in the mid 500’s bce and forward. This is third evolution in Hebrew itself as I show down below.

Pre Biblical Hebrew- from the Patriarchs to about the Judges era 1800 bce to just later than about 1100 bce using the Proto Sinaitic script.

Early or Classical Biblical Hebrew – from 1000 – 600 bce using Phoenician script.

Late Biblical Hebrew -mid 500’s bce to the Dead Sea scrolls era (about maybe 150 bce) this now uses the square script or Ktav Ashuri (Assyrian Script)

Then we leave the Biblical era and go to the Rabbinical era

Early Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew – (about maybe 150 bce ) to 550 ce. This covers the era of the Mishna and Talmud.

Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Medieval Hebrew – 550 ce to about the mid 1800’s ce. This era has very little in its corpus mostly liturgical stuff here and there.

Modern Hebrew 1880 to the present ,modern Hebrew actually begins just before the State of Israel as Zionist make settlements near and in Tel Aviv. For instance the word Aretzot Habrit ארצות הברית The United States (Covenant of Countries) dates to the late 1800’s not 1948.

let us look at Late Biblical Hebrew.

Daniel chapter 1 verse 1.

בִּשְׁנַ֣ת שָׁל֔וֹשׁ לְמַלְכ֖וּת יְהֽוֹיָקִ֣ים מֶֽלֶךְ־יְהוּדָ֑ה בָּ֣א נְבֽוּכַדְנֶאצַּ֧ר מֶֽלֶךְ־בָּבֶ֛ל יְרֽוּשָׁלִַ֖ם וַיָּ֥צַר עָלֶֽיהָ:

In the third year for the Kingdom (or reign) of Yehoyakim King of Yehudah (Judah) came N’vukhadnetzar (often Nebuchadnezzar) King of Bavel (Babylon ,Chaldea or southern Iraq) to Yerushalayim (Jerusalem) and besieged upon it.

Now one difference typical of Late Biblical Hebrew as opposed to Clasical or Early Biblical Hebrew is the use of the word Malkhut מַלְכ֖וּת for Kingdom. Early Biblical Hebrew uses the word Mamlakhah מַּמְלָכָה more often by far for Kingdom.

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We know him best as Nebuchadnezzar but the Hebrew says N’vukhadnetzar but his name in Imperial Babylonian Aramaic was Nabû-kudurri-uṣur. Which means “watch over my heir”.

Now for verse 3

וַיֹּ֣אמֶר הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ לְאַשְׁפְּנַ֖ז רַ֣ב סָֽרִיסָ֑יו לְהָבִ֞יא מִבְּנֵ֧י יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל וּמִזֶּ֥רַע הַמְּלוּכָ֖ה וּמִן־הַפַּרְתְּמִֽים:

And the King said to Ashpenaz his head of eunuchs: Bring from the children of Israel and from their Royal offspring and from the nobles.

This word here that many translations yields as officer but this word sarisaiv סָֽרִיסָ֑יו means “his eunuchs”. The aiv suffix is masculine possessive plural so it means “his eunuchs”. Saris סריס means eunuch singular but sometimes this can be interpretred as official. This maybe because in the ancient world so many court officials were eunuchs.

This word here is not native to Hebrew and is believed to be of Persian origin an if it is from a semitic western persian root or an eastern proto Indo Iranian root I would not know. Partemim פַּרְתְּמִֽים which is in the masculine plural of fartam which means chief,head or a high ranking Persian court official.

Here is verse 4

(כתיב מאוּם֩) יְלָדִ֣ים אֲשֶׁ֣ר אֵֽין־בָּהֶ֣ם כָּל־מוּם֩
 וְטוֹבֵ֨י מַרְאֶ֜ה וּמַשְׂכִּילִ֣ים בְּכָל־חָכְמָ֗ה וְיֹ֚דְעֵי דַ֙עַת֙ וּמְבִינֵ֣י מַדָּ֔ע וַֽאֲשֶׁר֙ כֹּ֣חַ בָּהֶ֔ם לַֽעֲמֹ֖ד בְּהֵיכַ֣ל הַמֶּ֑לֶךְ וּלְלַמְּדָ֥ם סֵ֖פֶר וּלְשׁ֥וֹן כַּשְׂדִּֽים:

Youths in whom there is no blemish, of handsome appearance, who understand all wisdom, [who are] erudite in knowledge, who understand how to express their thoughts, and who have strength to stand in the king’s palace, and to teach them the script and the language of the Chaldeans.

The first interesting thing here is the use of the word y’dalim יְלָדִ֣ים which is plural of yeled meaning small boy ,small young child.This is a child ,there is no abosolute numbered age to the word but it means a small boy like 10 or under maybe. A teenage youth is usually wored as naar נַעַר or naarah feminine. Context here makes it clear that this must be a post adolescent being that by the text they must be so wise. So just to not the use of yeled or y’ladim for a teenager is very unusual.

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There is also a corrected scribal error כָּל־מוּם֩ kal mum (all blemish) is a correction from מאוּם֩ ,pronounced the same but mispelled but this is not linguistic, but I do not think it is just a mistake.

This here is also interesting l’shon Kasdim לְשׁ֥וֹן כַּשְׂדִּֽים the language of the Kasdim (Chaldeans) .The word l’shon means literally tongue and this also indicates the Babylonian saw themselves as Chaldeans or as the text says in Hebrew Kasdim.

We will now go to Esther Chapter 1 ,although Daniel is loaded with theology and prophecy it is linguistics I am concerned about right now.

וַיְהִ֖י בִּימֵ֣י אֲחַשְׁוֵר֑וֹשׁ ה֣וּא אֲחַשְׁוֵר֗וֹשׁ הַמֹּלֵךְ֙ מֵהֹ֣דּוּ וְעַד־כּ֔וּשׁ שֶׁ֛בַע וְעֶשְׂרִ֥ים וּמֵאָ֖ה מְדִינָֽה:

And it was in the days of Achashveirosh (Ahasuerus) ,he was the Achashveirosh who reigned from Hodu (India) to Kush ,one hundred twenty-seven provinces.

The name of this Persian King who ruled many provinces but does not appear to be the Emperor of all of Persia, because it states where he ruled and not that he ruled all of Persia. Achashveirosh is Hebraic and Ahasuerus is Greek but he real name does appear to be Xšayaršā in Persian or Proto Iranian maybe and I do not know exactly. The pronunciation is as this: Kh’shayarsha ,so a guttural Kh like Khomeini followed by shay and arsha if that makes sense.

So Hodu הֹ֣דּוּ is India and likely Pakistan and modern Afghanistan and whether that covered Bangladesh I cannot say. Now Kush is associated with modern Ethiopia and maybe parts of Sudan or other African countries south of Egypt but north of the Rift Valley. Kush in Biblical times is not exactly modern Ethiopia and the Greeks called everything south of Egypt Ethiopia because the named meant burnt by the sun.

Verse 2

בַּיָּמִ֖ים הָהֵ֑ם כְּשֶׁ֣בֶת | הַמֶּ֣לֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵר֗וֹשׁ עַ֚ל כִּסֵּ֣א מַלְכוּת֔וֹ אֲשֶׁ֖ר בְּשׁוּשַׁ֥ן הַבִּירָֽה:

In those days, when King Ahasuerus sat on the throne of his kingdom, which was in Shushan the capital.

Shushan שׁוּשַׁ֥ן has significance because it is known as the modern city of Susa which is in southwestern Iran. This area was associated with the Elamites a Semitic Persian people. However linguistic evidence suggests that the language of the Persian Empire at that time was Indo-Iranian (that is Biblically Japhetic) and not Semitic. Proto Indo-European may be out dated because linguists have pretty much identified them as the Yamnaya people of central Asia.

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Verse 4

בְּהַרְאֹת֗וֹ אֶת־עֹ֨שֶׁר֙ כְּב֣וֹד מַלְכוּת֔וֹ וְאֶ֨ת־יְקָ֔ר תִּפְאֶ֖רֶת גְּדוּלָּת֑וֹ יָמִ֣ים רַבִּ֔ים שְׁמוֹנִ֥ים וּמְאַ֖ת יֽוֹם:

When he showed the riches of his glorious kingdom,the precious splendor of his greatness,for many days, one hundredv and eighty days.

This word here is a classic hifil verb which is a causative active verb (hufal is the passive causative). This word b’haroto בְּהַרְאֹת֗וֹ from the word re’ah meaning to see ,so the causative is “showed” ,the B’ prefix and O suffix mean when he showed.

The word y’kar is often translated here as slpendor but it actually means precious.However tiferet תִּפְאֶ֖רֶת does mean splendor or magnificence.

Here is a list of Persian loan words found in the Book of Esther.

Dat דָּת ,this means decree or edict or can also mean justice or sentence.

Achasdarpan אֲחַשְׁדַּרְפָּן ,this means Satrap or governor of a Province.

Patshegen פַּתְשֶׁגֶן ,this means copy or transcript.

Pitgam פִּתְגָּם , this also means decree or law ,command or law.

Achashteran אֲחַשְׁתְּרָן ,this means Royal.

Karpas כַּרְפַּס ,this means fine linen or cotton.

Ganzakh גַּנְזַךְ ,this means Royal treasury.

The name Esther אֶסְתֵּר is confusing here because if it is of Hebrew origin it means hidden. This name if of Persian origin could mean star.

Now we go to Ezra chapter 7 verse 12 and some Jewish Babylonian Imperial Aramaic.

אַ֨רְתַּחְשַׁ֔סְתְּא מֶ֖לֶךְ מַלְכַיָּ֑א לְעֶזְרָ֣א כַֽ֠הֲנָא סָפַ֨ר דָּתָ֜א דִּֽי־אֱלָ֧הּ שְׁמַיָּ֛א גְּמִ֖יר וּכְעֶֽנֶת:

Artachsaste King of Kings to Ezra the Priest, scribe of the law of God and Heaven in complete (peace) and so forth.

The name of the King Artachsaste I am sort of guessing on this pronunciation because the vowels are highly unusual and a Persian Kings name is articulated in a Babylonian Jewish language. The Complete Jewish Bible translated it this way Artach’shashta although those are not the vowels in the text.

Kings is articulated this way malkhaya מַלְכַיָּ֑א as opposed to the Hebrew malkhim. This actually means “the kings” because the letter alef ending a word in Babylonian Aramaic is the definite article and words ending in the leter alef is common in this dialect.

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This word here data דָּתָ֜א means “the law” and is similar to the Persian dat discussed above. This is likely because the word dat and data meaning the law with the a vowel being the definite article was imported to Babylon from Persia. So a double import from Persian to Imperial Babylonian Aramaic and then to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.

This word elah אֱלָ֧הּ means God and is very similar to words like Eloah ,El or Elohim. This word gmir גְּמִ֖יר means complete ,finished or perfect and this is where the Gemara (finished or complete) comes from which is the commentary section of the Talmud. This is from the root gamar meaning finished.

This word here ke’enet כְעֶֽנֶת ,this means like so forth or “so on” or like the post modern English etc…. . This may relate to the Hebrew word ka’eit meaning as of now but this is not known for sure. This could also relate to an Aramaic word meaning associate.

Verse 13

מִנִּי֘ שִׂ֣ים טְעֵם֒ דִּ֣י כָל־מִתְנַדַּ֣ב בְּמַלְכוּתִי֩ מִן־עַמָּ֨א יִשְׂרָאֵ֜ל וְכָֽהֲנ֣וֹהִי וְלֵֽוָיֵ֗א לִמְהָ֧ךְ לִֽירֽוּשְׁלֶ֛ם עִמָּ֖ךְ יְהָֽךְ:

 ¹³ (From me ‘the King’ ) A decree is set that everyone in my kingdom of the people of Isra’el, including their Kohanim and L’vi’im, who volunteer and choose to go with you to Yerushalayim, may go.

The first to words are pretty much Hebrew “from me is set” מִנִּי֘ שִׂ֣ים .

The next word teim טְעֵם֒ can mean taste or discernment but here in Aramaic means a decree (an order of sound judgement).

This word here is mitnadav מִתְנַדַּ֣ב and it means to volunteer or to be willing.So this is what you would call “Biblical Aramaic” and this was the beginning of the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic found in later documents like Targum Onkolos or the Gemara. Now let us get back to Hebrew we will look at Gemara later.

Now here is Nehemiah chapter 1 verse 1

( כתיב כסלו ) דִּבְרֵ֥י נְחֶמְיָ֖ה בֶּן־חֲכַלְיָ֑ה וַיְהִ֚י בְחֹֽדֶשׁ־כִּסְלֵיו֙
  שְׁנַ֣ת עֶשְׂרִ֔ים וַֽאֲנִ֥י הָיִ֖יתִי בְּשׁוּשַׁ֥ן הַבִּירָֽה:

The words of Nechem’yah (Nehemiah) son of Chakhalyah. And it was in the month of Kisleiv in the twentieth year and I was in Shushan (modern day Susa).

A couple interesting things here ,the use of the month of Kisleiv as a month on the Jewish calendar. These named months accept for a few did not exist pre- Babylonian exile.

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Before the Babylonian Exile, only a few Hebrew months had names mentioned in the Bible, primarily Abib (1st month, meaning “Spring” or “Ear of grain”) and Ziv (2nd month, meaning “Light/Radiance”), along with Ethanim (7th) and Bul (8th), which were Canaanite/Phoenician names used during the First Temple period before being replaced by Babylonian names after exile. 

Here’s a breakdown:

• Abib: Mentioned in Exodus, marking the time of the Exodus and the barley harvest.
• Ziv: Mentioned in 1 Kings during Solomon’s reign, meaning “brightness” or “splendor”.
• Ethanim: Mentioned in 1 Kings 8:2, meaning “strong,” possibly referring to strong rains.
• Bul: Mentioned in 1 Kings 6:38, also a Canaanite name

Kisleiv is a new month only known post Babylonian captivity. Also if you lookm at the Hebrew text there is spelling correction ( כתיב כסלו ) “originally written Kisleiv without a yod) . This could have been because late Biblical Hebrew was evolving and scribes were ironing out the small points.

Here is Nehemiah chapter 2 verse 8

וְאִגֶּ֡רֶת אֶל־אָסָף֩ שֹׁמֵ֨ר הַפַּרְדֵּ֜ס אֲשֶׁ֣ר לַמֶּ֗לֶךְ אֲשֶׁ֣ר יִתֶּן־לִ֣י עֵצִ֡ים לְ֠קָרוֹת אֶת־שַֽׁעֲרֵ֨י הַבִּירָ֚ה אֲשֶׁר־לַבַּ֙יִת֙ וּלְחוֹמַ֣ת הָעִ֔יר וְלַבַּ֖יִת אֲשֶׁר־אָב֣וֹא אֵלָ֑יו וַיִּתֶּן־לִ֣י הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ כְּיַד־אֱלֹהַ֖י הַטּוֹבָ֥ה עָלָֽי:

And a letter to Asaf the keeper of the orchard which is for the King. That he should give me wood to make a beams for the gates of the Temple of which is for the house for the city’s wall and for the house I will be occupying.” The king gave me these, according to the good hand of my God on me.

This word here pardeis פַּרְדֵּ֜ס which in Persian means orchard and is where the English word Paradise comes from. In Royal Persian courts a pardeis was an enclosed garden or orchard that was for the King or Satrap or emperor’s enjoyment. This word here birah בִּירָ֚ה which in modern Hebrew means a Nation, State or Province’s capital city. In the late Biblical Hebrew it means fortress, citadel or palace and sometimes temple.

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This here ke’yad כְּיַד meaning according to the hand, and this is not as common a way to say by the hand of in the Bible. B’yad ביד meaning with the hand is more common in early Biblical Hebrew. The “ke or ka” prefix usually means “as or like” but also can mean “according to”.

Now we go to Malakhi ( Malachi) chapter 1 verse 1

The name Malakhi means my messenger, so it is unclear if it was his name or a pen name used by a anonymous prophet.

מַשָּׂ֥א דְבַר־יְהֹוָ֖ה אֶל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל בְּיַ֖ד מַלְאָכִֽי

The burden of the word of the Lord to Israel by the hand of Malakhi.

The first thing here that is a bit different is the phrasing “the burden of the word of the Lord” . The word used masa מַשָּׂ֥א which is rooted in the word nasa meaning to lift or carry or to take up if phrased tisa.

Here is Malakhi chapter 1 verse 10

מִ֚י גַם־בָּכֶם֙ וְיִסְגֹּ֣ר דְּלָתַ֔יִם וְלֹֽא־תָאִ֥ירוּ מִזְבְּחִ֖י חִנָּ֑ם אֵֽין־לִ֨י חֵ֜פֶץ בָּכֶ֗ם אָמַר֙ יְהֹוָ֣ה צְבָא֔וֹת וּמִנְחָ֖ה לֹֽא־אֶרְצֶ֥ה מִיֶּדְכֶֽם:

Who also is among you that would close the doors [of the Temple] and that you would not kindle fire on My altar in vain!  I have no delight in you, says the Lord of Armies. Neither will I want an offering from your hand.

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One thing I did different from most translations is change Lord of Hosts to Lord of Armies Adonai Z’va’ot יְהֹוָ֣ה צְבָא֔וֹת .To me this means Lord of Angels and all spiritual beings and in ancient Israel and Jewish mystical thought angels were seen as military like.

This word here chinam חִנָּ֑ם means free which is rooted in the word chein חן meaning grace or favor. The ancient origins of this word was camp and so in a sense the word means shelter. In this case and in later Biblical Hebrew it means vain ,from the meaning of free. In early Biblical Hebrew shav שוא was most often used for vain or vanity.

Again here is the word mi’yedkhem מִיֶּדְכֶֽם meaning from your hand is also different from early Biblical Hebrew.

Now to Malakhi chapter 3 verse 1

הִֽנְנִ֚י שֹׁלֵחַ֙ מַלְאָכִ֔י וּפִנָּה־דֶ֖רֶךְ לְפָנָ֑י וּפִתְאֹם֩ יָב֨וֹא אֶל־הֵֽיכָל֜וֹ הָֽאָד֣וֹן | אֲשֶׁר־אַתֶּ֣ם מְבַקְשִׁ֗ים וּמַלְאַ֨ךְ הַבְּרִ֜ית אֲשֶׁר־אַתֶּ֚ם חֲפֵצִים֙ הִנֵּה־בָ֔א אָמַ֖ר יְהֹוָ֥ה צְבָאֽוֹת:

Behold, I will send my messenger, and to turn ( the people to the) way before me. And suddenly the Lord whom you seek will come to his Temple.Yes, the messenger of the covenant,in whom you take such delight ,look! Here he comes,says The Lord of Armies.

Many translations say clear the way but it says ufnah וּפִנָּה meaning “and turn” . Here is the word heikhal הֵֽיכָל֜ which means temple, sanctuary or palace and is often associated with the Lords own throne room. Now some translation use the term angel where the word (appears twice in this verse) malakh מַלְאַ֨ךְ. This word literally means messenger but also means angel. In this context though I think messenger makes more sense being this verse is very Messianic in nature.

Although this is not is standard Jewish or most Christian Bibles there was written a 151st Psalm and actually 152,153, 154 and 155th Psalm also. The 151st Psalm is in the Eastern Orthodox Bible actually ,the others are found in the Peshitta, a Syriac Christian Bible. Let us look at the 151st Psalm which was found in the Dead Sea scrolls.

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Psalm 151 verse 1

מִזְמ֣וֺר לְדָוִ֑ד אַחֲרֵ֥י הִ֝לָּחֲמ֗וֹ אֶת־גׇּלְיָֽת

Mizmor to David after he battled Gal’yat (Goliath)

A mizmor is a song of praise often meant for string instruments. Another thing to point out is the spelling of David דָוִ֑ד which is the older spelling found in Samuel maybe evidence that this Psalm was Davidic in era because later books of the bible us a different spelling of David.

Verse 2 and 3

צָעִ֗יר הָ֭יִֽיתִי בְת֣וֹךְ אָחָ֑י; וְ֝נַ֗עַר בְּבֵ֥ית אָבִֽי

Young I was in the midst of my brothers, and a lad in my father’s house.

A shepherd of my father’s flock, driving his herd in the wilderness.

Verse 4

יָדַ֗י עָ֭שֽׂוּ עוּגָ֑ב; אֶ֝צְבְּעוֹתַ֗י כּ֥וֹנֲנוּ נָֽבֶל

My hands worked on a flute (some type of wind instrument) ,my fingers performed on a lyre.

This word here ugav עוּגָ֑ב is generally meant as a wind instrument , anything from a flute to pan pipes or even a organ in modern Hebrew. The English translation of this Psalm even calls an ugav a lute but that is inconsistent with most other definitions.

Verses 5-7

And who can tell Adonai? Adonai – He will hear.

He sent His messenger, and took me from after my father’s flock.

And He anointed me with anointing oil, and appointed me a prince of my people.

Verse 8

אַחַ֗י טוֹבִ֣ים וּגְדוֹלִ֑ים; וְלֺ֥א בָ֝הֶ֗ם  חָפֵ֥ץ יהוֽה׃

My brothers are well and mighty but them the Lord did not desire.

It is interesting why good and great טוֹבִ֣ים וּגְדוֹלִ֑ים were put in the plural and I translated as well and mighty.

Here are verses 9-10

He took me out towards the Philistine, who cursed me through his idols.

And I tore off his sword, and cut off his head, and removed reproach from the children of Israel.

There is a 151st Psalm and very interesting and it was found in the Dead Sea scrolls. On this note we will end Late Biblical Hebrew.