What is late Biblical Hebrew ? In general it is the post exilic style found in the mid 500’s bce and forward. This is third evolution in Hebrew itself as I show down below.
Pre Biblical Hebrew- from the Patriarchs to about the Judges era 1800 bce to just later than about 1100 bce using the Proto Sinaitic script.
Early or Classical Biblical Hebrew – from 1000 – 600 bce using Phoenician script.
Late Biblical Hebrew -mid 500’s bce to the Dead Sea scrolls era (about maybe 150 bce) this now uses the square script or Ktav Ashuri (Assyrian Script)
Then we leave the Biblical era and go to the Rabbinical era
Early Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew – (about maybe 150 bce ) to 550 ce. This covers the era of the Mishna and Talmud.
Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Medieval Hebrew – 550 ce to about the mid 1800’s ce. This era has very little in its corpus mostly liturgical stuff here and there.
Modern Hebrew 1880 to the present, modern Hebrew actually begins just before the State of Israel as Zionist make settlements near and in Tel Aviv. For instance the word Aretzot Habrit ארצות הברית The United States (Covenant of Countries) dates to the late 1800’s not 1948.
let us look at Late Biblical Hebrew.
Daniel chapter 1 verse 1.
בִּשְׁנַ֣ת שָׁל֔וֹשׁ לְמַלְכ֖וּת יְהֽוֹיָקִ֣ים מֶֽלֶךְ־יְהוּדָ֑ה בָּ֣א נְבֽוּכַדְנֶאצַּ֧ר מֶֽלֶךְ־בָּבֶ֛ל יְרֽוּשָׁלִַ֖ם וַיָּ֥צַר עָלֶֽיהָ:
In the third year for the Kingdom (or reign) of Yehoyakim King of Yehudah (Judah) came N’vukhadnetzar (often Nebuchadnezzar) King of Bavel (Babylon, Chaldea or southern Iraq) to Yerushalayim (Jerusalem) and besieged upon it.
Now one difference typical of Late Biblical Hebrew as opposed to Clasical or Early Biblical Hebrew is the use of the word Malkhut מַלְכ֖וּת for Kingdom. Early Biblical Hebrew uses the word Mamlakhah מַּמְלָכָה more often by far for Kingdom.
We know him best as Nebuchadnezzar but the Hebrew says N’vukhadnetzar but his name in Imperial Babylonian Aramaic was Nabû-kudurri-uṣur. Which means “watch over my heir”.
Now for verse 3
וַיֹּ֣אמֶר הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ לְאַשְׁפְּנַ֖ז רַ֣ב סָֽרִיסָ֑יו לְהָבִ֞יא מִבְּנֵ֧י יִשְׂרָאֵ֛ל וּמִזֶּ֥רַע הַמְּלוּכָ֖ה וּמִן־הַפַּרְתְּמִֽים:
And the King said to Ashpenaz his head of eunuchs: Bring from the children of Israel and from their Royal offspring and from the nobles.
This word here that many translations yields as officer but this word sarisaiv סָֽרִיסָ֑יו means “his eunuchs”. The aiv suffix is masculine possessive plural so it means “his eunuchs”. Saris סריס means eunuch singular but sometimes this can be interpretred as official. This maybe because in the ancient world so many court officials were eunuchs.
This word here is not native to Hebrew and is believed to be of Persian origin an if it is from a semitic western persian root or an eastern proto Indo Iranian root I would not know. Partemim פַּרְתְּמִֽים which is in the masculine plural of fartam which means chief, head or a high ranking Persian court official.
Here is verse 4
(כתיב מאוּם֩) יְלָדִ֣ים אֲשֶׁ֣ר אֵֽין־בָּהֶ֣ם כָּל־מוּם֩
וְטוֹבֵ֨י מַרְאֶ֜ה וּמַשְׂכִּילִ֣ים בְּכָל־חָכְמָ֗ה וְיֹ֚דְעֵי דַ֙עַת֙ וּמְבִינֵ֣י מַדָּ֔ע וַֽאֲשֶׁר֙ כֹּ֣חַ בָּהֶ֔ם לַֽעֲמֹ֖ד בְּהֵיכַ֣ל הַמֶּ֑לֶךְ וּלְלַמְּדָ֥ם סֵ֖פֶר וּלְשׁ֥וֹן כַּשְׂדִּֽים:
Youths in whom there is no blemish, of handsome appearance, who understand all wisdom, [who are] erudite in knowledge, who understand how to express their thoughts, and who have strength to stand in the king’s palace, and to teach them the script and the language of the Chaldeans.
The first interesting thing here is the use of the word y’dalim יְלָדִ֣ים which is plural of yeled meaning small boy, small young child. This is a child, there is no absolute numbered age to the word but it means a small boy like 10 or under maybe. A teenage youth is usually worded as naar נַעַר or naarah feminine. Context here makes it clear that this must be a post adolescent being that by the text they must be so wise. So just to not the use of yeled or y’ladim for a teenager is very unusual.
There is also a corrected scribal error כָּל־מוּם֩ kal mum (all blemish) is a correction from מאוּם֩, pronounced the same but misspelled but this is not linguistic, but I do not think it is just a mistake.
This here is also interesting l’shon Kasdim לְשׁ֥וֹן כַּשְׂדִּֽים the language of the Kasdim (Chaldeans). The word l’shon means literally tongue and this also indicates the Babylonian saw themselves as Chaldeans or as the text says in Hebrew Kasdim.
We will now go to Esther Chapter 1, although Daniel is loaded with theology and prophecy it is linguistics I am concerned about right now.
וַיְהִ֖י בִּימֵ֣י אֲחַשְׁוֵר֑וֹשׁ ה֣וּא אֲחַשְׁוֵר֗וֹשׁ הַמֹּלֵךְ֙ מֵהֹ֣דּוּ וְעַד־כּ֔וּשׁ שֶׁ֛בַע וְעֶשְׂרִ֥ים וּמֵאָ֖ה מְדִינָֽה:
And it was in the days of Achashveirosh (Ahasuerus), he was the Achashveirosh who reigned from Hodu (India) to Kush, one hundred twenty-seven provinces.
The name of this Persian King who ruled many provinces but does not appear to be the Emperor of all of Persia, because it states where he ruled and not that he ruled all of Persia. Achashveirosh is Hebraic and Ahasuerus is Greek but he real name does appear to be Xšayaršā in Persian or Proto Iranian maybe and I do not know exactly. The pronunciation is as this: Kh’shayarsha, so a guttural Kh like Khomeini followed by shay and arsha if that makes sense.
So Hodu הֹ֣דּוּ is India and likely Pakistan and modern Afghanistan and whether that covered Bangladesh I cannot say. Now Kush is associated with modern Ethiopia and maybe parts of Sudan or other African countries south of Egypt but north of the Rift Valley. Kush in Biblical times is not exactly modern Ethiopia and the Greeks called everything south of Egypt Ethiopia because the named meant burnt by the sun.
Verse 2
בַּיָּמִ֖ים הָהֵ֑ם כְּשֶׁ֣בֶת | הַמֶּ֣לֶךְ אֲחַשְׁוֵר֗וֹשׁ עַ֚ל כִּסֵּ֣א מַלְכוּת֔וֹ אֲשֶׁ֖ר בְּשׁוּשַׁ֥ן הַבִּירָֽה:
In those days, when King Ahasuerus sat on the throne of his kingdom, which was in Shushan the capital.
Shushan שׁוּשַׁ֥ן has significance because it is known as the modern city of Susa which is in southwestern Iran. This area was associated with the Elamites a Semitic Persian people. However linguistic evidence suggests that the language of the Persian Empire at that time was Indo-Iranian (that is Biblically Japhetic) and not Semitic. Proto Indo-European may be out dated because linguists have pretty much identified them as the Yamnaya people of central Asia.
Verse 4
בְּהַרְאֹת֗וֹ אֶת־עֹ֨שֶׁר֙ כְּב֣וֹד מַלְכוּת֔וֹ וְאֶ֨ת־יְקָ֔ר תִּפְאֶ֖רֶת גְּדוּלָּת֑וֹ יָמִ֣ים רַבִּ֔ים שְׁמוֹנִ֥ים וּמְאַ֖ת יֽוֹם:
When he showed the riches of his glorious kingdom, the precious splendor of his greatness, for many days, one hundred and eighty days.
This word here is a classic hifil verb which is a causative active verb (hufal is the passive causative). This word b’haroto בְּהַרְאֹת֗וֹ from the word re’ah meaning to see, so the causative is “showed”, the B’ prefix and O suffix mean when he showed.
The word y’kar is often translated here as splendor but it actually means precious. However tiferet תִּפְאֶ֖רֶת does mean splendor or magnificence.
Here is a list of Persian loan words found in the Book of Esther.
Dat דָּת, this means decree or edict or can also mean justice or sentence.
Achasdarpan אֲחַשְׁדַּרְפָּן, this means Satrap or governor of a Province.
Patshegen פַּתְשֶׁגֶן, this means copy or transcript.
Pitgam פִּתְגָּם , this also means decree or law ,command or law.
Achashteran אֲחַשְׁתְּרָן, this means Royal.
Karpas כַּרְפַּס, this means fine linen or cotton.
Ganzakh גַּנְזַךְ, this means Royal treasury.
The name Esther אֶסְתֵּר is confusing here because if it is of Hebrew origin it means hidden. This name if of Persian origin could mean star.
Now we go to Ezra chapter 7 verse 12 and some Jewish Babylonian Imperial Aramaic.
אַ֨רְתַּחְשַׁ֔סְתְּא מֶ֖לֶךְ מַלְכַיָּ֑א לְעֶזְרָ֣א כַֽ֠הֲנָא סָפַ֨ר דָּתָ֜א דִּֽי־אֱלָ֧הּ שְׁמַיָּ֛א גְּמִ֖יר וּכְעֶֽנֶת:
Artachsaste King of Kings to Ezra the Priest, scribe of the law of God and Heaven in complete (peace) and so forth.
The name of the King Artachsaste I am sort of guessing on this pronunciation because the vowels are highly unusual and a Persian Kings name is articulated in a Babylonian Jewish language. The Complete Jewish Bible translated it this way Artach’shashta although those are not the vowels in the text.
Kings is articulated this way malkhaya מַלְכַיָּ֑א as opposed to the Hebrew malkhim. This actually means “the kings” because the letter alef ending a word in Babylonian Aramaic is the definite article and words ending in the leter alef is common in this dialect.
This word here data דָּתָ֜א means “the law” and is similar to the Persian dat discussed above. This is likely because the word dat and data meaning the law with the a vowel being the definite article was imported to Babylon from Persia. So a double import from Persian to Imperial Babylonian Aramaic and then to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.
This word elah אֱלָ֧הּ means God and is very similar to words like Eloah ,El or Elohim. This word gmir גְּמִ֖יר means complete ,finished or perfect and this is where the Gemara (finished or complete) comes from which is the commentary section of the Talmud. This is from the root gamar meaning finished.
This word here ke’enet כְעֶֽנֶת ,this means like so forth or “so on” or like the post modern English etc…. . This may relate to the Hebrew word ka’eit meaning as of now but this is not known for sure. This could also relate to an Aramaic word meaning associate.
Verse 13
מִנִּי֘ שִׂ֣ים טְעֵם֒ דִּ֣י כָל־מִתְנַדַּ֣ב בְּמַלְכוּתִי֩ מִן־עַמָּ֨א יִשְׂרָאֵ֜ל וְכָֽהֲנ֣וֹהִי וְלֵֽוָיֵ֗א לִמְהָ֧ךְ לִֽירֽוּשְׁלֶ֛ם עִמָּ֖ךְ יְהָֽךְ:
13 (From me ‘the King’ ) A decree is set that everyone in my kingdom of the people of Isra’el, including their Kohanim and L’vi’im, who volunteer and choose to go with you to Yerushalayim, may go.
The first to words are pretty much Hebrew “from me is set” מִנִּי֘ שִׂ֣ים .
The next word teim טְעֵם֒ can mean taste or discernment but here in Aramaic means a decree (an order of sound judgement).
This word here is mitnadav מִתְנַדַּ֣ב and it means to volunteer or to be willing. So this is what you would call “Biblical Aramaic” and this was the beginning of the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic found in later documents like Targum Onkolos or the Gemara. Now let us get back to Hebrew we will look at Gemara later.
Now here is Nehemiah chapter 1 verse 1
( כתיב כסלו ) דִּבְרֵ֥י נְחֶמְיָ֖ה בֶּן־חֲכַלְיָ֑ה וַיְהִ֚י בְחֹֽדֶשׁ־כִּסְלֵיו֙
שְׁנַ֣ת עֶשְׂרִ֔ים וַֽאֲנִ֥י הָיִ֖יתִי בְּשׁוּשַׁ֥ן הַבִּירָֽה:
The words of Nechem’yah (Nehemiah) son of Chakhalyah. And it was in the month of Kisleiv in the twentieth year and I was in Shushan (modern day Susa).
A couple interesting things here ,the use of the month of Kisleiv as a month on the Jewish calendar. These named months accept for a few did not exist pre- Babylonian exile.
Before the Babylonian Exile, only a few Hebrew months had names mentioned in the Bible, primarily Abib (1st month, meaning “Spring” or “Ear of grain”) and Ziv (2nd month, meaning “Light/Radiance”), along with Ethanim (7th) and Bul (8th), which were Canaanite/Phoenician names used during the First Temple period before being replaced by Babylonian names after exile.
Here’s a breakdown:
- Abib: Mentioned in Exodus, marking the time of the Exodus and the barley harvest.
- Ziv: Mentioned in 1 Kings during Solomon’s reign, meaning “brightness” or “splendor”.
- Ethanim: Mentioned in 1 Kings 8:2, meaning “strong,” possibly referring to strong rains.
- Bul: Mentioned in 1 Kings 6:38, also a Canaanite name
Kisleiv is a new month only known post Babylonian captivity. Also if you lookm at the Hebrew text there is spelling correction ( כתיב כסלו ) “originally written Kisleiv without a yod) . This could have been because late Biblical Hebrew was evolving and scribes were ironing out the small points.
Here is Nehemiah chapter 2 verse 8
וְאִגֶּ֡רֶת אֶל־אָסָף֩ שֹׁמֵ֨ר הַפַּרְדֵּ֜ס אֲשֶׁ֣ר לַמֶּ֗לֶךְ אֲשֶׁ֣ר יִתֶּן־לִ֣י עֵצִ֡ים לְ֠קָרוֹת אֶת־שַֽׁעֲרֵ֨י הַבִּירָ֚ה אֲשֶׁר־לַבַּ֙יִת֙ וּלְחוֹמַ֣ת הָעִ֔יר וְלַבַּ֖יִת אֲשֶׁר־אָב֣וֹא אֵלָ֑יו וַיִּתֶּן־לִ֣י הַמֶּ֔לֶךְ כְּיַד־אֱלֹהַ֖י הַטּוֹבָ֥ה עָלָֽי:
And a letter to Asaf the keeper of the orchard which is for the King. That he should give me wood to make a beams for the gates of the Temple of which is for the house for the city’s wall and for the house I will be occupying.” The king gave me these, according to the good hand of my God on me.
This word here pardeis פַּרְדֵּ֜ס which in Persian means orchard and is where the English word Paradise comes from. In Royal Persian courts a pardeis was an enclosed garden or orchard that was for the King or Satrap or emperor’s enjoyment. This word here birah בִּירָ֚ה which in modern Hebrew means a Nation, State or Province’s capital city. In the late Biblical Hebrew it means fortress, citadel or palace and sometimes temple.
This here ke’yad כְּיַד meaning according to the hand, and this is not as common a way to say by the hand of in the Bible. B’yad ביד meaning with the hand is more common in early Biblical Hebrew. The “ke or ka” prefix usually means “as or like” but also can mean “according to”.
Now we go to Malakhi ( Malachi) chapter 1 verse 1
The name Malakhi means my messenger, so it is unclear if it was his name or a pen name used by a anonymous prophet.
מַשָּׂ֥א דְבַר־יְהֹוָ֖ה אֶל־יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל בְּיַ֖ד מַלְאָכִֽי
The burden of the word of the Lord to Israel by the hand of Malakhi.
The first thing here that is a bit different is the phrasing “the burden of the word of the Lord” . The word used masa מַשָּׂ֥א which is rooted in the word nasa meaning to lift or carry or to take up if phrased tisa.
Here is Malakhi chapter 1 verse 10
מִ֚י גַם־בָּכֶם֙ וְיִסְגֹּ֣ר דְּלָתַ֔יִם וְלֹֽא־תָאִ֥ירוּ מִזְבְּחִ֖י חִנָּ֑ם אֵֽין־לִ֨י חֵ֜פֶץ בָּכֶ֗ם אָמַר֙ יְהֹוָ֣ה צְבָא֔וֹת וּמִנְחָ֖ה לֹֽא־אֶרְצֶ֥ה מִיֶּדְכֶֽם:
Who also is among you that would close the doors [of the Temple] and that you would not kindle fire on My altar in vain! I have no delight in you, says the Lord of Armies. Neither will I want an offering from your hand.
55.
One thing I did different from most translations is change Lord of Hosts to Lord of Armies Adonai Z’va’ot יְהֹוָ֣ה צְבָא֔וֹת .To me this means Lord of Angels and all spiritual beings and in ancient Israel and Jewish mystical thought angels were seen as military like.
This word here chinam חִנָּ֑ם means free which is rooted in the word chein חן meaning grace or favor. The ancient origins of this word was camp and so in a sense the word means shelter. In this case and in later Biblical Hebrew it means vain, from the meaning of free. In early Biblical Hebrew shav שוא was most often used for vain or vanity.
Again here is the word mi’yedkhem מִיֶּדְכֶֽם meaning from your hand is also different from early Biblical Hebrew.
Now to Malakhi chapter 3 verse 1
הִֽנְנִ֚י שֹׁלֵחַ֙ מַלְאָכִ֔י וּפִנָּה־דֶ֖רֶךְ לְפָנָ֑י וּפִתְאֹם֩ יָב֨וֹא אֶל־הֵֽיכָל֜וֹ הָֽאָד֣וֹן | אֲשֶׁר־אַתֶּ֣ם מְבַקְשִׁ֗ים וּמַלְאַ֨ךְ הַבְּרִ֜ית אֲשֶׁר־אַתֶּ֚ם חֲפֵצִים֙ הִנֵּה־בָ֔א אָמַ֖ר יְהֹוָ֥ה צְבָאֽוֹת:
Behold, I will send my messenger, and to turn ( the people to the) way before me. And suddenly the Lord whom you seek will come to his Temple. Yes, the messenger of the covenant, in whom you take such delight, look! Here he comes, says The Lord of Armies.
Many translations say clear the way but it says ufnah וּפִנָּה meaning “and turn” . Here is the word heikhal הֵֽיכָל֜ which means temple, sanctuary or palace and is often associated with the Lords own throne room. Now some translation use the term angel where the word (appears twice in this verse) malakh מַלְאַ֨ךְ. This word literally means messenger but also means angel. In this context though I think messenger makes more sense being this verse is very Messianic in nature.
Although this is not is standard Jewish or most Christian Bibles there was written a 151st Psalm and actually 152 ,153, 154 and 155th Psalm also. The 151st Psalm is in the Eastern Orthodox Bible actually ,the others are found in the Peshitta, a Syriac Christian Bible. Let us look at the 151st Psalm which was found in the Dead Sea scrolls.
Psalm 151 verse 1
מִזְמ֣וֺר לְדָוִ֑ד אַחֲרֵ֥י הִ֝לָּחֲמ֗וֹ אֶת־גׇּלְיָֽת
Mizmor to David after he battled Gal’yat (Goliath)
A mizmor is a song of praise often meant for string instruments. Another thing to point out is the spelling of David דָוִ֑ד which is the older spelling found in Samuel maybe evidence that this Psalm was Davidic in era because later books of the bible us a different spelling of David.
Verse 2 and 3
צָעִ֗יר הָ֭יִֽיתִי בְת֣וֹךְ אָחָ֑י; וְ֝נַ֗עַר בְּבֵ֥ית אָבִֽי
Young I was in the midst of my brothers, and a lad in my father’s house.
A shepherd of my father’s flock, driving his herd in the wilderness.
Verse 4
יָדַ֗י עָ֭שֽׂוּ עוּגָ֑ב; אֶ֝צְבְּעוֹתַ֗י כּ֥וֹנֲנוּ נָֽבֶל
My hands worked on a flute (some type of wind instrument), my fingers performed on a lyre.
This word here ugav עוּגָ֑ב is generally meant as a wind instrument, anything from a flute to pan pipes or even a organ in modern Hebrew. The English translation of this Psalm even calls an ugav a lute but that is inconsistent with most other definitions.
Verses 5-7
And who can tell Adonai? Adonai – He will hear.
He sent His messenger, and took me from after my father’s flock.
And He anointed me with anointing oil, and appointed me a prince of my people.
Verse 8
אַחַ֗י טוֹבִ֣ים וּגְדוֹלִ֑ים; וְלֺ֥א בָ֝הֶ֗ם חָפֵ֥ץ יהוֽה׃
My brothers are well and mighty but them the Lord did not desire.
It is interesting why good and great טוֹבִ֣ים וּגְדוֹלִ֑ים were put in the plural and I translated as well and mighty.
Here are verses 9-10
He took me out towards the Philistine, who cursed me through his idols.
And I tore off his sword, and cut off his head, and removed reproach from the children of Israel.
There is a 151st Psalm and very interesting and it was found in the Dead Sea scrolls. On this note we will end Late Biblical Hebrew.
So what is Mishnaic Hebrew also known as the L’shon chazal לשון חז״ל (language of the sages) ? It was the style of post Biblical Hebrew that became in common use in Rabbinical writings from after the Dead Sea scroll era to about 500 to maybe 550 ce. It gets its name from the Mishnah, which was a codification of Jewish oral traditions, proverbs and customs known as the Oral Torah sometimes called the Torah Shebal peh תּוֹרָה שֶׁבְּעַל־פֶּה . Nothing substantial in Mishnaic Hebrew was written until the Mishnah in 200 ce but when the dialect itself began to be spoken and written is not known for lacking of writings in it. It cannot be denied that a transition from late Biblical Hebrew to L’shon chazal happened at some point, the Tannai’m (Aramaic for teachers) who wrote the Mishnah did not invent it for fun. The language must have pre-existed the Mishnah itself. The word Mishnah itself means to repeat or to study and was made of the works that the Talmud would be a commentary on. Mishnaic Hebrew is the early part of what is called Rabbinic Hebrew as opposed to Biblical Hebrew. The later part of Rabbinic Hebrew is called Medieval Hebrew but very little was written in it.The Mishnah was redacted by Judah ha-Nasi probably in Beit Shearim or Sepphoris and the codification likely began in the late first century ce and was finalized as the Mishnah between 180-200 ce.
Here is the Mishah Seder Zeraim
(Agriculture) in tractate Berakhot chapter 1.
מֵאֵימָתַי קוֹרִין אֶת שְׁמַע בְּעַרְבִית. מִשָּׁעָה שֶׁהַכֹּהֲנִים נִכְנָסִים לֶאֱכֹל בִּתְרוּמָתָן, עַד סוֹף הָאַשְׁמוּרָה הָרִאשׁוֹנָה, דִּבְרֵי רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר. וַחֲכָמִים אוֹמְרִים, עַד חֲצוֹת. רַבָּן גַּמְלִיאֵל אוֹמֵר, עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. מַעֲשֶׂה שֶׁבָּאוּ בָנָיו מִבֵּית הַמִּשְׁתֶּה, אָמְרוּ לוֹ, לֹא קָרִינוּ אֶת שְׁמַע. אָמַר לָהֶם, אִם לֹא עָלָה עַמּוּד הַשַּׁחַר, חַיָּבִין אַתֶּם לִקְרוֹת. וְלֹא זוֹ בִּלְבַד, אֶלָּא כָּל מַה שֶּׁאָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים עַד חֲצוֹת, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. הֶקְטֵר חֲלָבִים וְאֵבָרִים, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. וְכָל הַנֶּאֱכָלִים לְיוֹם אֶחָד, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. אִם כֵּן, לָמָּה אָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים עַד חֲצוֹת, כְּדֵי לְהַרְחִיק אֶת הָאָדָם מִן הָעֲבֵרָה:
From when does one recite the Shma prayer in the evening? From the time the Kohanim (Priests) enter to partake of their Trumah offering and (extends) until the the time of the end of the first watch. These are the words of Rabbi Eli’ezer. The sages say until midnight and Raban Gamli’eil says: Until the dawn rises! And it happened that his (Raban Gamli’eil) sons came home from a banquet hall and they said to him (Gamli’eil) : We did not recite the Shma Prayer. He (Gamli’eil) said to them, if the dawn has not yet risen up,you are obligated to recite it! Not only this but all that the sages say until midnight is commanded until dawn rises! (responded as evidence on previous claim on subject of Temple sacrifice as example) The burning of fat and organs for one day may be eaten until the rising of the dawn. If this is so? Why did the sages say until midnight? In order to put distance from a person and a transgression.
This word here korin קוֹרִין which means “they recite or read” this is from the older Biblical Hebrew kara קרא which means to read or call or summon. The Arabic word Quran which means to recite, and is from the same semitic root. This word arvit ערבית means evening and means evening ritual prayer and is a variation of the more common erev ערב meaning evening. It is debated if erev ערב is where the term Arab comes ,so in thinking that the Arabs were dark in complexion and in the evening things get darker is the logic on one theory. This may come from a root of mixing because in the evening light mixes with day. There is also a word aravah, meaning steppe or desert that the word Arab might come from also and that the words erev for evening and Aravah for a scrubland are maybe of the same root. There is also a word oreiv meaning black bird עורב that may also be related. This etymology is not a settled issue at all and others suggest Arab is connected also with evening because Arabia is west and the sun sets in the west.
Here is the word Raban רַבָּן which means “our master or teacher” similar to words like Rav or Rabbi. The Raban is very Mishnaic and is not seen much elsewhere. This word chakhamim חֲכָמִים which means literally wise one masculine plural, from chokhmah meaning wisdom. This is common in the Mishnah and Talmud to express sages or the respected Rabbi’s.
Here is Mishnah Seder mo’eid (Holidays) tractate Shabat (Sabbath) chapter 1 verse 1.
יְצִיאוֹת הַשַּׁבָּת שְׁתַּיִם שֶׁהֵן אַרְבַּע בִּפְנִים, וּשְׁתַּיִם שֶׁהֵן אַרְבַּע בַּחוּץ. כֵּיצַד. הֶעָנִי עוֹמֵד בַּחוּץ וּבַעַל הַבַּיִת בִּפְנִים, פָּשַׁט הֶעָנִי אֶת יָדוֹ לִפְנִים וְנָתַן לְתוֹךְ יָדוֹ שֶׁל בַּעַל הַבַּיִת, אוֹ שֶׁנָּטַל מִתּוֹכָהּ וְהוֹצִיא, הֶעָנִי חַיָּב וּבַעַל הַבַּיִת פָּטוּר. פָּשַׁט בַּעַל הַבַּיִת אֶת יָדוֹ לַחוּץ וְנָתַן לְתוֹךְ יָדוֹ שֶׁל עָנִי, אוֹ שֶׁנָּטַל מִתּוֹכָהּ וְהִכְנִיס, בַּעַל הַבַּיִת חַיָּב וְהֶעָנִי פָּטוּר. פָּשַׁט הֶעָנִי אֶת יָדוֹ לִפְנִים וְנָטַל בַּעַל הַבַּיִת מִתּוֹכָהּ, אוֹ שֶׁנָּתַן לְתוֹכָהּ וְהוֹצִיא, שְׁנֵיהֶם פְּטוּרִין. פָּשַׁט בַּעַל הַבַּיִת אֶת יָדוֹ לַחוּץ וְנָטַל הֶעָנִי מִתּוֹכָהּ, אוֹ שֶׁנָּתַן לְתוֹכָהּ וְהִכְנִיס, שְׁנֵיהֶם פְּטוּרִין:
(The prohibited acts of ) Carrying out on Shabat (Sabbath/Shabos) , there are two (actions) and four cases from inside a private area, and two (actions) and four cases in a outside area. How ( explained for example) ? The poor person stood in the outside and the homeowner is in the inside. The poor person with his hand reached out inside into (the house ) And gave to the hand of the homeowner or landlord. Or he grasp (the object) from inside and took it out. (in that case) the poor man is in debt and the homeowner or landlord is excused.
( If the) Homeowner or Landlord reached outside (with) his hand and gives it (the object ) to the poor person. Or he grabbed it (from the poor person) and (carried it) inside (private home). (In that case) the homeowner or landlord is obligated to debt and the poor person is excused.
So the poor man extended his hand to the inside and the homeowner grabbed (the object) from (the poor person and placed it inside).
Or that he gave it (to the poor person) who took it outside ,both of them are excused (in this situation).
The owner of the house stretched out his hand and the poor man took it from it, or he put it in and brought it in, both are excused. (The reason being for both being exempt is that they only did part of the forbidden act on the Shabat)
Here our first new Mishnaic word is keitzad כֵּיצַד ,which means “how or what” or “in a manor”. This word pashat פָּשַׁט which can mean simply but in the Mishnah often means to “spread out or reach out”. This word here natal נָּטַל appears to be of late Biblical Hebrew origin but only used a few times in Daniel and seems more common in the Mishnaic era. These are some examples of linguistic changes in the mishnaic era.
Now let us go to the Tosefta תוספתא, which is a book very similar to the Mishnah and was compiled of things that were left out of the Mishnah. So that which had been whether by accident or intentional oversight ,was left out, was put into a book called the Tosefta. The word Tosefta is of the same root as the name Joseph which means added or increased, so Tosefta means supplement or additional. The root is the word is asaf אסף which means to gather or add. It is generally believed that the Tosefta was written about 20 years after the Mishnah, so about 220 ce.
Here is Tosefta tractate Chagigah chapter 1 verse 1 from Seder Moed
(Holidays).
הטמא פטור מן הראייה שנאמר (דברים י״ב:ה׳-ו׳) ובאת שמה והבאתם שמה בראוי ליכנס לעזרה [יצא טמא שאין ראוי ליכנס לעזרה
The unclean are excused from appearing (to the Temple) as is said in: (Deuteronomy 12:5-6). And you shall come there and you shall bring there (that is your offering to God). In being able to appear in the (Sanctuary) one must be fit, an unclean person is not fit to enter (the sanctuary or Temple) they are excused.
This word here re’i’yah ראייה this hifil causative verb in modern Hebrew means vision but here it means appearing or to appear. This is not a used word in Biblical Hebrew. This word le’ezrah לעזרה to help is used to express ones fitness or ability, this is also Mishnaic in usage.
Here is chagigah chapter 2 verse 1
אין דורשין בעריות בשלשה אבל דורשין בשנים [ולא] במעשה בראשית בשנים אבל דורשין ביחיד ולא במרכבה ביחיד אא”כ היה חכם מבין מדעתו מעשה ברבן יוחנן בן זכאי שהיה רוכב על החמור והיה רבי אלעזר בן ערך מחמר אחריו אמר לו רבי שנה פרק אחד במעשה מרכבה אמר לו לא [כן אמרתי לך מתחלה שאין שונין] במרכבה ביחיד אלא אם כן היה חכם מבין מדעתו אמר לו מעתה ארצה לפניך אמר לו אמור פתח רבי אלעזר בן ערך ודרש במעשה מרכבה ירד רבי יוחנן בן זכאי מן החמור ונתעטף בטליתו וישבו שניהם על גבי אבן תחת הזית והרצה לפניו עמד ונשקו ואמר ברוך ה’ אלהי ישראל אשר נתן בן לאברהם אבינו שיודע להבין ולדרוש בכבוד אביו שבשמים יש נאה דורש ואין נאה מקיים נאה מקיים ואין נאה דורש [אלעזר בן ערך] נאה דורש ונאה מקיים אשריך [אברהם] אבינו שאלעזר בן ערך יצא מחלציך [שיודע להבין ולדרוש בכבוד אביו שבשמים] רבי יוסי ברבי יהודה אומר רבי יהושע הרצה לפני רבן יוחנן בן זכאי [רבי עקיבה] הרצה לפני רבי יהושע חנניא בן חכינאי הרצה לפני רבי עקיבה.
They may not discuss answers on sexual impurity among three (people) but they may discuss it among two (people). And do not teach in the works of creation (Book of Genesis/Breishit chapter 1) in (front of) two (people) but they may teach to one (person). (Do not teach in the works) of the chariot even to one, unless he was wise, he understands his own mind. ( The works of the chariot or “Maaseh Merkavah” which are mystical meditations on the chariot vision of Ezekiel 1:1). )There is a) story Raban Yochanan ben Zakkai, who was riding a donkey, and Rabbi Elazar ben Arakh was riding after him. (Raban yochanon) He said to him (Rabbi Elazar ben Arakh) ,teach me one chapter of Maaseh Merkavah (Writings of the chariot)? (Raban Yochanon responds) Saying: No, Have I not said to you from the beginning that they may not teach on the chariot unless one is wise and underdstands his own mind. (Rabbi Elazar) He said to him, From now on I want (permission) to speak before you? And he opened up and began to speak and Rabbi Elazar ben Arakh taught on the works of the chariot. And descended from his donkey Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai and wrapped himself in his tallit. They both sat on a stone under an olive tree and ran through ( the subject) before him. He (Rabbi Yochanon) stood and said: Blessed be the Lord God of Israel. Who gave a son to Abraham our father that knows and understands how to teach about the glory of our Father in Heaven. There are those who are suited to teach but not to fulfill and those suited to fulfill and not to teach. Ele’azar ben Arakh is suited to expound and to fulfill. Happy is Abraham our father, that Ele’azar ben Arakh, who came forth from your loins, knows and understands well enough to expound on the glory of our Father in heaven!” Rabbi Yosi bar R. Yehuda says: “Rabbi Yehoshua expounded before R. Yochanan ben Zakkai, Rabbi Akiva expounded before Rabbi Yehoshua and Chananiah ben Chachinai expounded before Rabbi Akiva.”
The discussion here is on “Maaseh Merkavah ( works or writings of the chariot) This is a corpus of literature about mystical meditations on the Chariot vision in Ezekiel chapter 1. this word here dorshin דורשין is derived from the Biblical word drash, meaning “to seek” . The word dorshin means to expound or teach or give a sermon. This word here yachid יחיד means one or only or single and comes from echad אחד the Biblical word for one (in the masculine).
This word perek פרק which here means chapter, but the Hebrew word פרק (perek/parak) has several related meanings, primarily revolving around breaking, separating, or dividing, evolving to mean a chapter, section, joint (knuckle), installment, or lesson, and even to redeem or rescue in Aramaic/later Hebrew contexts, often signifying a decisive removal of constraints like a yoke or chains, as seen in biblical texts describing violent separation or strategic crossroads.
This word here also Elohei אלהי meaning “the God” is a Mishnaic idiom also. Now lets go to the Talmud and see what is there !
Tractate Ketubot 2a 1
The Mishnah states:
בְּתוּלָה נִשֵּׂאת לַיּוֹם הָרְבִיעִי וְאַלְמָנָה לַיּוֹם הַחֲמִישִׁי. שֶׁפַּעֲמַיִם בְּשַׁבָּת בָּתֵּי דִינִין יוֹשְׁבִין בָּעֲיָירוֹת: בַּיּוֹם הַשֵּׁנִי וּבַיּוֹם הַחֲמִישִׁי, שֶׁאִם הָיָה לוֹ טַעֲנַת בְּתוּלִים, הָיָה מַשְׁכִּים לְבֵית דִּין
A virgin is married on the fourth day (Wednesday) and is a widow on the fifth day (Thursday). (The reason is) That at two times in a week the courts convene in two towns on the second day (Monday) and the fifth day (Thursday). So if there was for him a claim on virginity (after consummating of the of marriage), he would arise early and go to court.
Here above is interesting and something you will not see in Biblical Hebrew and that is a noun before verb phrase. “A virgin is married” בְּתוּלָה נִשֵּׂאת that is obviously not typical of Biblical era Hebrew.
Here is also page 2a in tractate Ketubot in verse 4.
אָמַר רַב יוֹסֵף: מָרֵיהּ דְּאַבְרָהָם! תָּלֵי תַּנְיָא בִּדְלָא תַּנְיָא?! הֵי תַּנְיָא וְהֵי לָא תַּנְיָא? הָא תַּנְיָא וְהָא תַּנְיָא! אֶלָּא: תָּלֵי תַּנְיָא דִּמְפָרֵשׁ טַעְמָא בִּדְתַנְיָא דְּלָא מְפָרֵשׁ טַעְמָא
Rav Yoseif said (in response to Rav Shmuel) : Lord of Avraham! (He) Makes what is taught (dependent) on what is not taught. (The Gemara asks) Which is taught and which is not taught? Both this mishna is taught and that mishna is taught. (The Gemara responds that Rav Shmuel teaches as Halakhah/law) That is is taught (in the Mishnah) that it is explicit and dependent (on Halakhah/law) taught (later in the Mishnah ) who’s reason is not explicit.
This word here דְּאַבְרָהָם which is Avraham or Abraham with the de ד prefix. This prefix means that, which or who and is very common in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. This word here תַּנְיָא tanya means is was taught from the tana meaning to teach. This word here dimfareish דִּמְפָרֵשׁ means explaining in a specific or explicit way, a detailed reason. The word halakhah הלכה literally means “walk way or path” but means Jewish law in Rabbinical literature or Jewish legal ruling. You also may want to know what Gemara גמרא is, it means “The Talmud and literally means “to finish or complete” and is often shortened like this- גְּמָ׳ . This word here Mareih מָרֵיהּ means his Lord or master from the word marei (or sometimes pronounced marya) מָרֵא meaning Lord or master. This is where the phrase Maranatha comes from, meaning Lord come ! this word ta תא means come in Jewish Aramaic.
Verse 5
אֶלָּא אִי אִיתְּמַר הָכִי אִיתְּמַר. אָמַר רַב יְהוּדָה אָמַר שְׁמוּאֵל: מִפְּנֵי מָה אָמְרוּ בְּתוּלָה נִשֵּׂאת לַיּוֹם הָרְבִיעִי? שֶׁאִם הָיָה לוֹ טַעֲנַת בְּתוּלִים — הָיָה מַשְׁכִּים לְבֵית דִּין. וְתִינָּשֵׂא בְּאֶחָד בְּשַׁבָּת, שֶׁאִם הָיָה לוֹ טַעֲנַת בְּתוּלִים הָיָה מַשְׁכִּים לְבֵית דִּין? שָׁקְדוּ חֲכָמִים עַל תַּקָּנַת בְּנוֹת יִשְׂרָאֵל, שֶׁיְּהֵא טוֹרֵחַ בִּסְעוּדָה שְׁלֹשָׁה יָמִים, אֶחָד בְּשַׁבָּת וְשֵׁנִי בַּשַּׁבָּת וּשְׁלִישִׁי בַּשַּׁבָּת, וּבָרְבִיעִי כּוֹנְסָהּ
But if it was said , this is how it was said: Rav Yehudah said that Rav Shmuel said: From what (reason) did (the sages say) the virgin was married on the fourth day (Wednesday)? That if there was for him a claim on the issue of viginity, he would arise early and go court the next day. (The Gemara asks:) (if so, why not) marry on Yom Rishon (Sunday) as then if there is claim (concerning) her virginity , he can go to court early the next day? (The Gemara responds:) The sages were diligent in establishing the welfare of the daughters of Yisrael. The Sages instituted wedding take place on Wednesday, so that the groom would exert himself in arranging the wedding feast for three days: Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday, and on Wednesday, he marries her.
This word here itmar אִיתְּמַר means “it was stated or was said” , not to be confused with the name Itamar which means ” Island of date trees”. This word here is interesting and it is Biblical not Mishnaic in origin and it means to rise or awake early: mashkim מַשְׁכִּים. This word here shakdu שָׁקְדוּ means they were diligent or alert from this word kad קַד meaning diligent. This word here means torei’ach טוֹרֵחַ means to bother or to take a burden or to exert oneself.
We can see a lot of things here and that Mishnaic Hebrew is not far from Biblical Hebrew with some nuanced changes in meaning. Mishnaic Hebrew makes the early part of Rabbinical Hebrew, with the latter being Medieval Hebrew. The Mishnah is it’s main corpus because the Talmud and the Tosefta have more Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Although it is true that the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic of the Talmud is much more Jewish as opposed to the Biblical Aramaic which is more Iraqi or Mesopotamian. It is also very true as we see that the most ancient of Hebrew is far closer to modern Hebrew by a long shot than Old English is to modern English.
Here is some information on learning Hebrew if you do not already know it.
Now to the Hebrew Alef-Beit.
א Alef אלף (silent) but technically not silent but is supposed to be a glottal stop, which is spoken through the stomach but this is rarely observed and is basically silent. It has a pictographic meaning of Ox and numerical value is 1.
𐤀 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic script
ב Beit בית With a dagesh sounds as a B boy and when open without a dagesh sounds as a V like victory. Pictographic meaning is house and the number value is 2.
𐤁 Phoenician script and below is the Proto Sinaitic.
ג Gimel גימל G like good, a dagesh mark does not effect modern pronunciation but in older times an open gimel would have been softer. It is pronounced J as in Jack with a geresh mark and the picture meaning is camel and the number value is 3.
𐤂 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ד Dalet דלת D like door and in modern times the the dagesh does not matter but in ancient times an open dalet sounded as TH like “the” so for instance King David would have been called in his era Dawith but this is archaic. The picture meaning is door or in older times fish and the number value is 4 .
𐤃 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ה Hei הא H like Harold and sometimes has a mapik ending words giving it accent upon it. The picture meaning is window or jubilation in older times and the number value is 5.
𐤄 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ו Vav וו V like victory (W like window in ancient times) also can be a vowel O or U and its pictographic meaning is hook or nail and the number value is 6.
𐤅 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ז Zayin זין Z like zoo and with a geresh mark is like the Russian zh or the Dutch J like Jean or like the word collage ( word zayin slang for male genitalia) The picture meaning is weapon and the number value is 7.
𐤆 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ח Cheit חית is like the German or Scottish open k a guttural from the throat “chanukhah” . The picture meaning is fence or courtyard and the number value is 8
𐤇 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ט Teit טית T like tiger. The picture meaning is snake and the number value is 9.
𐤈 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
י Yod יוד Y as in yes and can also work with vowels . The pictographic meaning is hand and the number value isn 10.
𐤉 Phoenician script and below is Proto Sinaitic.
Certain Hebrew letters have a different form when ending a letter and this is called a sofit סופית letter.
כ”ך Khaf and Khaf sofit כף K like kite with a dagesh and kh like previous letter Cheit in open form, Khaf sofit is almost always open Kh. The pictographic meaning is palm (hand not tree) and the number value of Kaf/Khaf is 20 and khaf sofit is 500.
𐤊 Phoenician script and below is Proto-Sinaitic.
ל Lamed למד L as in little and the picture meaning is staff or goad and the number value is 30.
𐤋 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
מ”ם Meim/Meim sofit מם M mother. The pictogtraphic meaning is water and the number value is 40 meim sofit is 600.
𐤌 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
נ”ן Nun/Nun sofit נון N like Nancy. The picture meaning is seed or sprouting and the number value is 50 and nun sofit is 700.
𐤍 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ס Samekh סמך S like sister and with a mapik in the middle (or some call it a dagesh) it is “ss” like Mississippi. The pictographic meaning is support and the number value is 60.
𐤎 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ע Ayin עין is silent today or a mild glottal stop but in ancient times it was a soft “gh” from the throat and is in the Bible the first letter in Gommorah but today is silent but in Arabic is still Ghayin in some cases but not always. The picture meaning is eye and the number value is 70.
𐤏 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
פ”ף Pei and Pei sofit פא is P like pirate with a dagesh and open is F like fire and Pei sofit is always F like fire. It’s pictographic meaning is mouth and the number value is 80 and Pei sofit is 800.
𐤐 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
צ”ץ Tzadi and Tzadi sofit צדי sounds as tz like ritz or blitz ending a syllable or a word and beginning a word some people pronounce it as a normal z and others a normal s like sister.The Bible usually has it in English as a z like Zion. With a geresh mark it is pronounced like the english “ch” as in choo choo train or chips. It’s picture meaning is path or trail and the number value is 90 and Tzadi sofit is 900.
𐤑 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ק Kuf קוף K like kite just like a normal English K but is often written as a Q but I think this deceives English speakers into thinking it is pronounced kw like our qu. It’s pictographic meaning is monkey and the number value is 100.
𐤒 Phoenician script and below is the Proto Sinaitic.
ר Reish ריש R but is supposed to be rolled like the German or French style but R like roll. It’s picture meaning is head and the number value is 200.
𐤓 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
ש Shin שין with a dagesh on the right (most common) שׁ is pronounced sh like ship and on the left (rare actually) שׂ S like sister. English speakers can remember this by “sin is never right” .It’s picture meaning is sharp and the number value is 300.
𐤔 Phoenician script and below is the Proto Sinaitic.
ת Tav תו T like train or tiger but Yiddish speakers (also Ashkenazic Hebrew) this is pronounced as an S like sister. With a geresh it would be pronounced as th as with with. It’s picture meaning is mark or sign and the number value is 400.
𐤕 Phoenician script and below is the Proto-Sinaitic.
You will also see some other dagesh and mapik marks in other letters also
Here is a Hei with a mapik הּ now this does not change pronunciation but makes is a glottal stop when ending words or syllables. Samekh and meim (and other letters too) will sometimes also have a dagesh or mapik which is a accent doubling the letter like Mississippi or accommodated.
Now let us look at the geresh mark.
ג׳ J like Jack .
ז׳ like a Hungarian z or Russian zh or Dutch J Jean or French Jacques Cousteau.
צ׳ Ch like English cheese or chips.
ד׳ th like the.
ת׳ th like with .
The vowels or nikud ניקוד or nikudot ניקודות in the plural (literally dots) a nikud in ancient Hebrew was a cookie or small cake or also cookie crumb but today it means means dot nikud or dots nikudot. Also disregard consonant above the nikud it is only there to facilitate the diacritic.
Kamatz קמץ אָ A like father, some people pronounce this deeper like u as in sun or fun but that is old fashioned .Ashkenazic Jews will pronounce this like O as in boat. For all normal purposes this is A like father.
Chataf kamatz חטף קמץ חֳ very Biblical and original pronunciation is lost but is now vocalized the same as kamatz A like father.
Patach אַ פתח this is A like father in every subdialect and tradition and modern.
Chataf patach אֲ חטף פתח sort of the same rule as chataf kamatz.
Chirik חירק אִ E like feet and אִי chirik malei חירק מלא same, ee like feet .
Tzeirei אֵ E like they or A like aim and tzeirei malei צירי מלא, like chirik malei vowel combined with the letter Yod, same pronunciation.
Segol אֶ סגול E like pet and there is a segol malei which aslo combines the letter Yod and is pronounced E like they or A like aim .
אֱ Here is chataf segol and like segol malei is archaic and Biblical only and its original pronunciation is lost, some thought it was a short A like ash or apple. Today and in Biblical vocalization is the same as segol E as in jet.
בְּ shva שוא an E so short it is virtually silent and in this book is written as an apostrophe ‘
חַי Any of the A type nikud like kamatz or patach or their lesser forms combined with the letter yod as seen in the example. In this case patach with a yod over it. These are all pronounced as I as in like or bike, there is no short I as in pin or bit in Hebrew.
אֹ (can you see the dot on top) cholam chaseir חולם חסר (rare Biblical) O like boat.
וֹ (dot on top is faint sorry) cholan malei חולם מלא O like boat.
אֻ Kubutz קבוץ (archaic Biblical) U like lune or oo like moon.
וּ Shuruk שורוק U like lune or oo like moon.
The O and U vowels can be combined with the letter yod and the earlier vowel code explains this.
The furtive patach: In Hebrew the vocalization comes after the consonant. This word (adam) אָדָם meaning humankind or a proper name, the kamatz vowel’s both sound after the consonant (alef is silent) hence adam. In the furtive patach the patach a vowel comes before the consonant (usually cheit ending a word). In this word שָׂמֵחַ, now you would think this would be pronounced as “sameicha” because the patach is under the cheit and the under vowel sounds after. This is a furtive patach so it sounds as “samei’ach (happy) sounding before the consonant.
So let’s do prefixes and suffixes which Hebrew is fond of using these more than single words like the or as or with. First prefixes:
א a I, אחשב achisheiv ( I think)
ב In, with, by or rarely when- usually pronounced as be but can be ba . B’reishit בראשית in Beginning (Genesis)
ה ha, the definite article ,pronounced he proceeding a guttural letter. Habayit the house הבית. he’cheider החדר the room because the letter cheit is a guttural.
ו And or but- ve or va usually ve or a U shuruk vowel when when double prefixed v’hu והוא and he .Uvayom וביום “and in the day”. Also the vav can change to the shuruk U vowel before the letters ב”כ”פ”מ”ק and another rule is that Hebrew does not like consecutive Shva vowel (super short e) so the vowel in and ve is a shva so it may become U if it proceeds a shva.
י ye or yi or yo he (they will ) yisamakh יסמך “he will support” (biblical) or simply will (modern) confirm or support.
כ ke or ka, as or like or according ka’ari כארי like a lion.
ל le la, to or for le’hitpaleil להתפלל to pray or le’hayom להיום for today.
מ From usually mi (this prefix the vowel varies more) mi’melekh מִמֶּלֶךְ from a king. There is also the Meim of comparison in Hebrew ” I am better at basketball from you” meaning better than you. So the prefix from can be comparative.
נ usually ni, we will, we’re, nileikh נלך we will go out or we’re going.
ש she (e like pet) which, what, that, who from the ancient asher meaning the same. She’karah שקרה which happened (or that happened)
ת ti or ta or te usually, You shall or you will. T’chiyah תחיה you’ll live or from the Ten commandments “You shall not murder”, lo tirtzach לא תרצח (also can mean she will, third person singular)
Suffixes.
ים im masculine plural ,achim אחים brothers
וֹת ot plural feminine, achot אחות sister, nurse (in this case modifies masc. to fem.) Achiyot אחיות sisters plural.
י i, my achi אחי my brother, sibling. Also I did first person תי ti, shamarti שמרתי I kept or saved. This also can be the vowel ay (I as in like) possessive plural susai סוסי my horses. This also uses the tzeirei vowel in construct form plural. B’nei Yisrael בני ישראל children of Israel.
ת you did passed tense, shamarta שמרת you kept or saved masculine, shamar’t שמרת you kept feminine.
ך your or you, yourself kha masculine, eikh feminine. Suskha סוּסְךָ your horse masculine, suseikh סוּסֵךְ your horse feminine. Also כם”כן you plural alkhem עלכם about you all masc. alken עלכן same feminine.
ו o cholam vowel, his, b’no בנו his son or sometimes ayv יו his plural b’naiv בניו his sons. Also as a U or shuruk וּ they did (passed tense) nahgu נהגו “drove” ,they drove. Also you do, tishemru תשמרו you kept (take care informal).
נו nu, we, ashamnu אשמנו “we were guilty”. This also can be plural possessive, m’khonitnu מְכוֹנִיתנו our car.
ם”ן em/en masc./fem (or sometimes an an) beitam ביתם their house masc. feminine would end with nun.
So those are not all but the most important prefixes and suffixes you will quickly pick up the rest reading. Now let us look as some grammar and verbal stems.
The word for verb is paal פעל meaning action .
Kal (simple/easy) קל shakhav שכב lying to lay down.
Nifal נפעל passive, written or was written, niktav נכתב.
Hifil הִפְעִיל causative active (so “bo” בא means come) in the causative heibi הביא means “bring”.
Hufal הופעל causative passive, hu’bi הוביא “brought”
Hitpaleil הִתְפַּלֵּל reflexive, hitkhatav התכתב correspondence or he corresponded.
Pi’el פעל intensive active smashed as opposed to broken shibeir שיבר.
Pu’al פועל intensive passive “was shattered” shubar שובר.
Truth in Mikra 
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